acceptable risk (s.v. acceptable risk): A risk that is understood and tolerated usually because the cost or difficulty of implementing an effective countermeasure for the associated vulnerability exceeds the expectation of loss. (†958)
access (s.v. access control): The selective restriction of access to a place or other resource. The act of accessing may mean consuming, entering, or using. Permission to access a resource is called authorization. (†1286)
access control : The selective restriction of access to a place or other resource. The act of accessing may mean consuming, entering, or using. Permission to access a resource is called authorization. (†1580)
accountability (s.v. accountability): Answerability, blameworthiness, liability, and the expectation of account-giving [Dykstra, 1939]. ...In leadership roles [Williams, 2006], accountability is the acknowledgment and assumption of responsibility for actions, products, decisions, and policies including the administration, governance, and implementation within the scope of the role or employment position and encompassing the obligation to report, explain and be answerable for resulting consequences. (†1285)
alternative fact (s.v. "alternative facts"): "Alternative facts" is a phrase used by U.S. Counselor to the President Kellyanne Conway during a Meet the Press interview on January 22, 2017, in which she defended White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer's false statement about the attendance numbers of Donald Trump's inauguration as President of the United States. When pressed during the interview with Chuck Todd to explain why Spicer "utter[ed] a provable falsehood", Conway stated that Spicer was giving "alternative facts". Todd responded, "Look, alternative facts are not facts. They're falsehoods. . . . Conway later defended her choice of words, defining "alternative facts" as "additional facts and alternative information." (†2676)
anonymous (s.v. "anonymity"): Derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, anonymia, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, "anonymous" is used to describe situations where the acting person's name is unknown.
¶ The most important example for anonymity being not only protected, but enforced by law is probably the vote in free elections. In many other situations (like conversation between strangers, buying some product or service in a shop), anonymity is traditionally accepted as natural. There are also various situations in which a person might choose to withhold their identity. Acts of charity have been performed anonymously when benefactors do not wish to be acknowledged. A person who feels threatened might attempt to mitigate that threat through anonymity. A witness to a crime might seek to avoid retribution, for example, by anonymously calling a crime tipline. Criminals might proceed anonymously to conceal their participation in a crime. Anonymity may also be created unintentionally, through the loss of identifying information due to the passage of time or a destructive event. (†591)
anonymous (s.v. "anonymity"): Most commentary on the Internet is essentially done anonymously, using unidentifiable pseudonyms. While these usernames can take on an identity of their own, they are frequently separated and anonymous from the actual author. According to the University of Stockholm this is creating more freedom of expression, and less accountability. (†592)
anonymous (s.v. "anonymity"): Derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness." In colloquial use, "anonymous" is used to describe situations where the acting person's name is unknown. Some writers have argued that namelessness, though technically correct, does not capture what is more centrally at stake in contexts of anonymity. The important idea here is that a person be non-identifiable, unreachable, or untrackable.[Wallace, 1999; Nissenbaum, 1999; Matthews, 2010] Anonymity is seen as a technique, or a way of realizing, certain other values, such as privacy, or liberty. (†1284)
archives (s.v. archive): An accumulation of historical records, or the physical place they are located [University of South Dakota Library, 2009]. Archives contain primary source documents that have accumulated over the course of an individual or organization's lifetime, and are kept to show the function of that person or organization. (†1283)
audit (s.v. "audit"): A systematic and independent examination of data, statements, records, operations and performances (financial or otherwise) of an enterprise for a stated purpose. In any auditing the auditor perceives and recognizes the propositions before him for examination, collects evidence, evaluates the same and on this basis formulates his judgment which is communicated through his audit report. The purpose is then to give an opinion on the adequacy of controls (financial and otherwise) within an environment they audit, to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance processes. (†875)
authentication (s.v. authentication): The act of confirming the truth of an attribute of a single piece of data (datum) or entity. (†1281)
authentication (s.v. authentication): In contrast with identification which refers to the act of stating or otherwise indicating a claim purportedly attesting to a person or thing's identity, authentication is the process of actually confirming that identity. It might involve confirming the identity of a person by validating their identity documents, verifying the validity of a Website with a digital certificate, tracing the age of an artifact by carbon dating, or ensuring that a product is what its packaging and labeling claim to be. In other words, authentication often involves verifying the validity of at least one form of identification. (†1282)
authenticity (s.v. authenticity): The truthfulness of origins, attributes, commitments, sincerity, devotion, and intentions. (†1280)
availability (s.v. availability): Availability of a system is typically measured as a factor of its reliability - as reliability increases, so does availability. Availability of a system may also be increased by the strategy on focusing on increasing testability & maintainability and not on reliability. (†1454)
backup (s.v. backup): The copying and archiving of computer data so it may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. (†1278)
backup (s.v. backup): Backups have two distinct purposes. The primary purpose is to recover data after its loss, be it by data deletion or corruption. ... The secondary purpose of backups is to recover data from an earlier time, according to a user-defined data retention policy, typically configured within a backup application for how long copies of data are required. (†1279)
best evidence (s.v. "best evidence rule"): The best evidence rule has been codified in Rules 1001 to 1008 of the Federal Rules of Evidence.[4] These rules generally require the original or reliable duplicate of any "writing, recording, or photograph" when the content of that evidence is given legal significance by substantive law (such as a contracts or copyright dispute) or by the parties themselves (such as using a video recording of a bank robbery). The rule is only a general preference, as rules 1004 to 1007 permit exceptions when the original is unavailable, only of collateral importance, a public record, burdensome, or admitted by the other party in writing or deposition. (†915)
best evidence (s.v. "best evidence rule"): [The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act] modified the [Canada Evidence Act] modified this act to include provisions for electronic best evidence, viz,
¶Application of best evidence rule – electronic documents
¶31.2 (1) The best evidence rule in respect of an electronic document is satisfied
(a) on proof of the integrity of the electronic documents system by or in which the electronic document was recorded or stored; or
(b) if an evidentiary presumption established under section 31.4 applies.
Presumptions regarding secure electronic signatures
¶31.4 The Governor in Council may make regulations establishing evidentiary presumptions in relation to electronic documents signed with secure electronic signatures, including regulations respecting
(a) the association of secure electronic signatures with persons; and
(b) the integrity of information contained in electronic documents signed with secure electronic signatures. (†916)
best practice (s.v. "best practice"): A best practice is a method or technique that has consistently shown results superior to those achieved with other means, and that is used as a benchmark. In addition, a "best" practice can evolve to become better as improvements are discovered. Best practice is considered by some as a business buzzword, used to describe the process of developing and following a standard way of doing things that multiple organizations can use.
Best practices are used to maintain quality as an alternative to mandatory legislated standards and can be based on self-assessment or benchmarking. Best practice is a feature of accredited management standards such as ISO 9000 and ISO 14001. (†261)
big data (s.v. big data): An all-encompassing term for any collection of data sets so large or complex that it becomes difficult to process them using traditional data processing applications. (†1277)
bit rot (s.v. "bit rot"): n. ~ Bit rot, also bit decay, data rot, or data decay, is a colloquial computing phrase for the gradual decay of storage media or an explanation for the degradation of a software program over time, even if ‘nothing has changed’. (†854)
blind trust (s.v. "blind trust"): A trust in which the fiduciaries, namely the trustees or those who have been given power of attorney, have full discretion over the assets, and the trust beneficiaries have no knowledge of the holdings of the trust and no right to intervene in their handling. Blind trusts are generally used when a settlor (sometimes called a trustor or donor) wishes to keep the beneficiary unaware of the specific assets in the trust, such as to avoid conflict of interest between the beneficiary and the investments. Politicians or others in sensitive positions often place their personal assets (including investment income) into blind trusts, to avoid public scrutiny and accusations of conflicts of interest when they direct government funds to the private sector. A blind trust is often used with those who have come across a fortune within a short period of time (e.g. an inheritance, or a multimillion lottery) in order to keep their identity anonymous to the public. (†775)
business model (s.v. business model): An abstract representation of an organization, be it conceptual, textual, and/or graphical, of all core interrelated architectural, co-operational, and financial arrangements designed and developed by an organization presently and in the future, as well all core products and/or services the organization offers, or will offer, based on these arrangements that are needed to achieve its strategic goals and objectives [Al-Debei and Avison, 2010]. (†1455)
business process (s.v. business process): A collection of related, structured activities or tasks that produce a specific service or product (serve a particular goal) for a particular customer or customers. It can often be visualized with a flowchart as a sequence of activities with interleaving decision points or with a Process Matrix as a sequence of activities with relevance rules based on data in the process. (†1048)
Capability Maturity Model (s.v. "Capability Maturity Model Integration"): Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is a process improvement training and appraisal program and service administered and marketed by Carnegie Mellon University and required by many DOD and U.S. Government contracts, especially in software development. Carnegie Mellon University claims CMMI can be used to guide process improvement across a project, division, or an entire organization. CMMI defines the following maturity levels for processes: Initial, Managed, Defined, Quantitatively Managed, Optimizing. Currently supported is CMMI Version 1.3. CMMI is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office by Carnegie Mellon University. (†1469)
certification (s.v. "certification"): Certification refers to the confirmation of certain characteristics of an object, person, or organization. This confirmation is often, but not always, provided by some form of external review, education, assessment, or audit. Accreditation is a specific organization's process of certification. (†776)
chain of custody (s.v. "chain of custody"): In legal contexts, refers to the chronological documentation or paper trail, showing the seizure, custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of physical or electronic evidence.
¶ Particularly important in criminal cases, the concept is also applied in civil litigation – and sometimes more broadly in drug testing of athletes, traceability of food products and to provide assurances that wood products originate from sustainably managed forests.
¶The term is also sometimes used in the fields of history, art history, and archives as a synonym for provenance (meaning the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object, document or group of documents), which may be an important factor in determining authenticity. (†762)
class (s.v. "class (computer programming)"): In object-oriented programming, a class is an extensible program-code-template for creating objects, providing initial values for state (member variables) and implementations of behavior (member functions or methods). (†2501)
cloud bursting (s.v. cloud computing): An application deployment model in which an application runs in a private cloud or data center and "bursts" to a public cloud when the demand for computing capacity increases. (†1276)
cloud computing (s.v. "cloud computing"): Cloud computing is a colloquial expression used to describe a variety of different types of computing concepts that involve a large number of computers connected through a real-time communication network (typically the Internet).[1] Cloud computing is a jargon term without a commonly accepted non-ambiguous scientific or technical definition. In science, cloud computing is a synonym for distributed computing over a network and means the ability to run a program on many connected computers at the same time. The phrase is also, more commonly used to refer to network based services which appear to be provided by real server hardware, which in fact are served up by virtual hardware, simulated by software running on one or more real machines. Such virtual servers do not physically exist and can therefore be moved around and scaled up (or down) on the fly without affecting the end user - arguably, rather like a cloud. (†221)
cloud service (s.v. "cloud_computing"): Service models ¶ Cloud computing providers offer their services according to several fundamental models: infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS) where IaaS is the most basic and each higher model abstracts from the details of the lower models. Other key components in anything as a service (XaaS) are described in a comprehensive taxonomy model published in 2009,[Tony Shan, "Cloud Taxonomy and Ontology"". February 2009] such as Strategy-as-a-Service, Collaboration-as-a-Service, Business Process-as-a-Service, Database-as-a-Service, etc. In 2012, network as a service (NaaS) and communication as a service (CaaS) were officially included by ITU (International Telecommunication Union) as part of the basic cloud computing models, recognized service categories of a telecommunication-centric cloud ecosystem. (†565)
cloud storage (s.v. "cloud storage"): Cloud storage is a model of networked enterprise storage where data is stored not only in the user's computer, but in virtualized pools of storage which are generally hosted by third parties, too. Hosting companies operate large data centers, and people who require their data to be hosted buy or lease storage capacity from them. The data center operators, in the background, virtualize the resources according to the requirements of the customer and expose them as storage pools, which the customers can themselves use to store files or data objects. Physically, the resource may span across multiple servers. The safety of the files depends upon the hosting websites.
¶ Architecture Cloud storage is based on highly virtualized infrastructure and is like broader cloud computing in terms of accessible interfaces, near-instant elasticity and scalability, multi-tenancy, and metered resources. Cloud storage services can be utilized from an off-premises service . . . or deployed on-premises . . . .
¶ Cloud storage typically refers to a hosted object storage service, but the term has broadened to include other types of data storage that are now available as a service, like block storage. (†222)
cloud storage (s.v. "cloud storage"): a model of data storage where the digital data is stored in logical pools, the physical storage spans multiple servers (and often locations), and the physical environment is typically owned and managed by a hosting company. These cloud storage providers are responsible for keeping the data available and accessible, and the physical environment protected and running. People and organizations buy or lease storage capacity from the providers to store end user, organization, or application data.
¶ Cloud storage services may be accessed through a co-located cloud compute service, a web service application programming interface (API) or by applications that utilize the API, such as cloud desktop storage, a cloud storage gateway or Web-based content management systems. (†804)
community cloud (s.v. "Community cloud"): A community cloud in computing is a collaborative effort in which infrastructure is shared between several organizations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally. The costs are spread over fewer users than a public cloud (but more than a private cloud), so only some of the cost savings potential of cloud computing are realized. (†455)
compliance (s.v. regulatory compliance): Conforming to a rule, such as a specification, policy, standard or law. Regulatory compliance describes the goal that organisations aspire to achieve in their efforts to ensure that they are aware of and take steps to comply with relevant laws and regulations. (†1273)
confidence (s.v. confidence): A state of being certain either that a hypothesis or prediction is correct or that a chosen course of action is the best or most effective. (†1272)
confidentiality (s.v. confidentiality): A set of rules or a promise that limits access or places restrictions on certain types of information. (†1271)
coproduction (s.v. coproduction (society)): Co-production is where technical experts and other groups in society generate new knowledge and technologies together. It is the dynamic interaction between technology and society. . . . ¶ As a sensitizing concept, the idiom of co-production looks at four themes: "the emergence and stabilization of new techno-scientific objects and framings, the resolution of scientific and technical controversies; the processes by which the products of techno-science are made intelligible and portable across boundaries; and the adjustment of science’s cultural practices in response to the contexts in which science is done." Studies employing co-production often follow the following pathways: "making identities, making institutions, making discourses, and making representations." [Citing SheilaJasanoff, States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and the Social Order (Routledge. 2004). (†1270)
copy (s.v. copying): The duplication of information or an artifact based only on an instance of that information or artifact, and not using the process that originally generated it. (†1269)
Creative Commons (s.v. "Creative Commons license"): A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use and build upon a work that they have created. CC provides an author flexibility (for example, they might choose to allow only non-commercial uses of their own work) and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work, so they don’t have to worry about copyright infringement, as long as they abide by the conditions that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work. […] The CC licenses all grant the "baseline rights", such as the right to distribute the copyrighted work worldwide, without changes, at no charge. The details of each of these licenses depends on the version, and comprises a selection of four conditions: Attribution (BY) –Licensees may copy, distribute, display and perform the work and make derivative works based on it only if they give the author or licensor the credits in the manner specified by these. Share-alike (SA) – Licensees may distribute derivative works only under a license identical to the license that governs the original work. (See also copyleft.) Non-commercial (NC) – Licensees may copy, distribute, display, and perform the work and make derivative works based on it only for noncommercial purposes. No Derivative Works (ND) – Licensees may copy, distribute, display and perform only verbatim copies of the work, not derivative works based on it. (†503)
crowdsourcing (s.v. crowdsourcing): The process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people, and especially from an online community, rather than from traditional employees or suppliers [Merriam-Webster, 2012]. ...The term "crowdsourcing" is a portmanteau of "crowd" and "outsourcing"; it is distinguished from outsourcing in that the work comes from an undefined public rather than being commissioned from a specific, named group. (†1268)
dark data (s.v. "dark data"): Data which is acquired through various computer network operations but not used in any manner to derive insights or for decision making. In some cases the organization may not even be aware that the data is being collected. . . . In an industrial context, dark data can include information gathered by sensors and telematics. . . . Often it is stored for regulatory compliance and record keeping. Some organizations believe that dark data could be useful to them in the future, once they have acquired better analytic and business intelligence technology to process the information. (†2701)
data (s.v. data): A set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables; restated, pieces of data are individual pieces of information. Data is measured, collected and reported, and analyzed, whereupon it can be visualized using graphs or images. Data as an abstract concept can be viewed as the lowest level of abstraction, from which information and then knowledge are derived. (†1267)
data anonymization (s.v. "data anonymization"): A type of information sanitization whose intent is privacy protection [through a] process of either encrypting or removing personally identifiable information from data sets, so that the people whom the data describe remain anonymous. (†1549)
Data as a Service (DaaS) (s.v. "DaaS"): Data as a Service, or DaaS, is a cousin of software as a service.[1] Like all members of the "as a Service" (aaS) family, DaaS is based on the concept that the product, data in this case, can be provided on demand[2] to the user regardless of geographic or organizational separation of provider and consumer. Additionally, the emergence of service-oriented architecture (SOA) has rendered the actual platform on which the data resides also irrelevant.[3] This development has enabled the recent emergence of the relatively new concept of DaaS. Data provided as a service was at first primarily used in Web mashups, but now is being increasingly employed both commercially and, less commonly, within organisations such as the UN.[4]
(†461)
data de-identification (s.v. de-identification): The process used to prevent a person’s identity from being connected with information.... [C]ommon strategies for de-identifying datasets are deleting or masking personal identifiers, such as name and social security number, and suppressing or generalizing quasi-identifiers, such as date of birth and zip code. (†1653)
data exhaust (s.v. United Nations Global Pulse): Anonymized data generated through the use of services such as telecommunications, mobile banking, online search, hotline usage, transit, etc. (†1266)
data governance (s.v. "data governance"): An emerging discipline with an evolving definition. The discipline embodies a convergence of data quality, data management, data policies, business process management, and risk management surrounding the handling of data in an organization. Through data governance, organizations are looking to exercise positive control over the processes and methods used by their data stewards and data custodians to handle data.
¶·Data governance is a set of processes that ensures that important data assets are formally managed throughout the enterprise. Data governance ensures that data can be trusted and that people can be made accountable for any adverse event that happens because of low data quality. It is about putting people in charge of fixing and preventing issues with data so that the enterprise can become more efficient. Data governance also describes an evolutionary process for a company, altering the company’s way of thinking and setting up the processes to handle information so that it may be utilized by the entire organization. It’s about using technology when necessary in many forms to help aid the process. When companies desire, or are required, to gain control of their data, they empower their people, set up processes and get help from technology to do it.
¶·There are some commonly cited vendor definitions for data governance. Data governance is a quality control discipline for assessing, managing, using, improving, monitoring, maintaining, and protecting organizational information. It is a system of decision rights and accountabilities for information-related processes, executed according to agreed-upon models which describe who can take what actions with what information, and when, under what circumstances, using what methods. (†835)
data governance (s.v. "data governance"): Data governance encompasses the people, processes, and information technology required to create a consistent and proper handling of an organization's data across the business enterprise. Goals may be defined at all levels of the enterprise and doing so may aid in acceptance of processes by those who will use them. Some goals include:
· Increasing consistency and confidence in decision making
· Decreasing the risk of regulatory fines
· Improving data security
· Maximizing the income generation potential of data
· Designating accountability for information quality
· Enable better planning by supervisory staff
· Minimizing or eliminating re-work
· Optimize staff effectiveness
· Establish process performance baselines to enable improvement efforts
· Acknowledge and hold all gain (†836)
data lake (s.v. "data lake"): A method of storing data within a system or repository, in its natural format, that facilitates the collocation of data in various schemata and structural forms, usually object blobs or files. The idea of data lake is to have a single store of all data in the enterprise ranging from raw data (which implies exact copy of source system data) to transformed data which is used for various tasks including reporting, visualization, analytics and machine learning. The data lake includes structured data from relational databases (rows and columns), semi-structured data (CSV, logs, XML, JSON), unstructured data (emails, documents, PDFs) and even binary data (images, audio, video) thus creating a centralized data store accommodating all forms of data. (†2600)
data management plan (s.v. "data management plan"): A formal document that outlines how you will handle your data both during your research, and after the project is completed. The goal of a data management plan is to consider the many aspects of data management, metadata generation, data preservation, and analysis before the project begins; this ensures that data are well-managed in the present, and prepared for preservation in the future. (†845)
data masking (s.v. "data masking"): Data masking or data obfuscation is the process of hiding original data with random characters or data.
The main reason for applying masking to a data field is to protect data that is classified as personal identifiable data, personal sensitive data or commercially sensitive data, however the data must remain usable for the purposes of undertaking valid test cycles. It must also look real and appear consistent. (†1592)
data migration (s.v. data migration): The process of transferring data between storage types, formats, or computer systems. It is a key consideration for any system implementation, upgrade, or consolidation. (†1265)
data mining (s.v. "unstructured data"): Techniques such as data mining and text analytics and noisy-text analytics provide different methods to find patterns in, or otherwise interpret, this information. Common techniques for structuring text usually involve manual tagging with metadata or part-of-speech tagging for further text mining-based structuring. Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) provides a common framework for processing this information to extract meaning and create structured data about the information. (†619)
data mining (s.v. "data mining"): Data mining (the analysis step of the "Knowledge Discovery in Databases" process, or KDD), an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science, is the computational process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of artificial intelligence, machine learning, statistics, and database systems. The overall goal of the data mining process is to extract information from a data set and transform it into an understandable structure for further use. Aside from the raw analysis step, it involves database and data management aspects, data pre-processing, model and inference considerations, interestingness metrics, complexity considerations, post-processing of discovered structures, visualization, and online updating.
¶ The term is a misnomer, because the goal is the extraction of patterns and knowledge from large amount of data, not the extraction of data itself. It also is a buzzword, and is frequently also applied to any form of large-scale data or information processing (collection, extraction, warehousing, analysis, and statistics) as well as any application of computer decision support system, including artificial intelligence, machine learning, and business intelligence. . . . Often the more general terms "(large scale) data analysis", or "analytics" – or when referring to actual methods, artificial intelligence and machine learning – are more appropriate. (†683)
data obfuscation (s.v. "data masking"): Data masking or data obfuscation is the process of hiding original data with random characters or data.
¶ The main reason for applying masking to a data field is to protect data that is classified as personal identifiable data, personal sensitive data or commercially sensitive data, however the data must remain usable for the purposes of undertaking valid test cycles. . . .
¶ The primary concern from a corporate governance perspective is that personnel conducting work in these non-production environments are not always security cleared to operate with the information contained in the production data. This practice represents a security hole where data can be copied by unauthorised personnel and security measures associated with standard production level controls can be easily bypassed. This represents an access point for a data security breach.
¶ Data masking techniques [described in detail in the entry] include substitution, shuffling, number and data variance, encryption, nulling out or deletion, and masking out. (†806)
data protection (s.v. information privacy): Information privacy, or data privacy (or data protection), is the relationship between collection and dissemination of data, technology, the public expectation of privacy, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. (†1264)
data protection (s.v. data protection directive): The Data Protection Directive (officially Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data) is a European Union directive adopted in 1995 which regulates the processing of personal data within the European Union. It is an important component of EU privacy and human rights law. (†2680)
data sanitization (s.v. "sanitization (classified information)"): Sanitization is the process of removing sensitive information from a document or other message (or sometimes encrypting it), so that the document may be distributed to a broader audience. When the intent is secrecy protection, such as in dealing with classified information, sanitization attempts to reduce the document's classification level, possibly yielding an unclassified document. When the intent is privacy protection, it is often called data anonymization. Originally, the term sanitization was applied to printed documents; it has since been extended to apply to computer media and the problem of data remanence as well. (†1618)
data state (s.v. Data at Rest): Data at Rest is used as a complement to the terms Data in Use and Data in Motion which together define the three states of digital data. (†1452)
data warehouse (s.v. "data warehouse"): In computing, a data warehouse (DW or DWH), also known as an enterprise data warehouse (EDW), is a system used for reporting and data analysis, and is considered a core component of business intelligence. DWs are central repositories of integrated data from one or more disparate sources. They store current and historical data in one single place and are used for creating analytical reports for knowledge workers throughout the enterprise.
¶ The data stored in the warehouse is uploaded from the operational systems (such as marketing or sales). The data may pass through an operational data store and may require data cleansing[2] for additional operations to ensure data quality before it is used in the DW for reporting. (†2609)
data warehouse (s.v. "data warehouse"): The concept of data warehousing dates back to the late 1980s[12] when IBM researchers Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy developed the "business data warehouse". In essence, the data warehousing concept was intended to provide an architectural model for the flow of data from operational systems to decision support environments. The concept attempted to address the various problems associated with this flow, mainly the high costs associated with it. In the absence of a data warehousing architecture, an enormous amount of redundancy was required to support multiple decision support environments. In larger corporations, it was typical for multiple decision support environments to operate independently. Though each environment served different users, they often required much of the same stored data. The process of gathering, cleaning and integrating data from various sources, usually from long-term existing operational systems (usually referred to as legacy systems), was typically in part replicated for each environment. Moreover, the operational systems were frequently reexamined as new decision support requirements emerged. Often new requirements necessitated gathering, cleaning and integrating new data from "data marts" that were tailored for ready access by users. (†2610)
dataset (s.v. data set): A collection of data. Most commonly a data set corresponds to the contents of a single database table, or a single statistical data matrix, where every column of the table represents a particular variable, and each row corresponds to a given member of the data set in question. The data set lists values for each of the variables, such as height and weight of an object, for each member of the data set. Each value is known as a datum. The data set may comprise data for one or more members, corresponding to the number of rows.
The term data set may also be used more loosely, to refer to the data in a collection of closely related tables, corresponding to a particular experiment or event. (†1420)
de-anonymization (s.v. "de-anonymization"): A strategy in data mining in which anonymous data is cross-referenced with other sources of data to re-identify the anonymous data source. (†1550)
denial of service (s.v. denial-of-service attack): An attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to carry out, the motives for, and targets of a DoS attack vary, it generally consists of efforts to temporarily or indefinitely interrupt or suspend services of a host connected to the Internet. (†1263)
digital forensics (s.v. digital forensics): A branch of forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices, often in relation to computer crime. The term digital forensics was originally used as a synonym for computer forensics but has expanded to cover investigation of all devices capable of storing digital data. (†1421)
digital preservation (s.v. digital preservation): A formal endeavor to ensure that digital information of continuing value remains accessible and usable.[Digital Preservation Coalition, 2008] It involves planning, resource allocation, and application of preservation methods and technologies,[Day, 2006] and it combines policies, strategies and actions to ensure access to reformatted and "born-digital" content, regardless of the challenges of media failure and technological change. The goal of digital preservation is the accurate rendering of authenticated content over time.[Evans and Carter, 2008] (†1262)
disaster recovery plan (s.v. disaster recovery plan): A disaster recovery plan (DRP) is a documented process or set of procedures to recover and protect a business IT infrastructure in the event of a disaster. Such plan, ordinarily documented in written form, specifies procedures an organization is to follow in the event of a disaster. It is "a comprehensive statement of consistent actions to be taken before, during and after a disaster." The disaster could be natural, environmental or man-made. (†1530)
disaster recovery plan (s.v. DRP (disaster recovery planning)): Planning to ensure the timely recovery of information technology assets and services following a catastrophe, such as fire, flood or hardware failure. (†1531)
disclosure (s.v. "discovery"): Under the law of the United States, civil discovery is wide-ranging and may seek disclosure of information that is reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence. This is a much broader standard than relevance, because it contemplates the exploration of evidence which might be relevant, rather than evidence which is truly relevant. (†2700)
discovery (s.v. discovery (observation)): The act of detecting something new, or something "old" that had been unknown. With reference to science and academic disciplines, discovery is the observation of new phenomena, new actions, or new events and providing new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered through such observations with previously acquired knowledge from abstract thought and everyday experiences. A discovery may sometimes be based on earlier discoveries, collaborations, or ideas. Some discoveries represent a radical breakthrough in knowledge or technology. (†1260)
discovery (s.v. discovery (law)): Discovery, in the law of the United States, is the pre-trial phase in a lawsuit in which each party, through the law of civil procedure, can obtain evidence from the opposing party by means of discovery devices including requests for answers to interrogatories, requests for production of documents, requests for admissions and depositions. (†1261)
document (s.v. document): A written, drawn, presented or recorded representation of thoughts. ...in the past it was usually used as a term for a written proof used as evidence. In the computer age, a document is usually used to describe a primarily textual file, along with its structure and design, such as fonts, colors and additional images. The formal term 'document' is defined in Library and information science and in documentation science, as a basic theoretical construct. It is everything which may be preserved or represented in order to serve as evidence for some purpose. (†1259)
e-democracy (s.v. e-democracy): E-democracy, or internet democracy, incorporates 21st-century information and communications technology to promote democracy. That means a form of government in which all adult citizens are presumed to be eligible to participate equally in the proposal, development, and creation of laws.[Jafarkarimi, Sim, Saadatdoost, Hee, 2014] E-democracy encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-determination. (†1258)
e-governance (s.v. e-governance): The application of information and communication technology (ICT) for delivering government services, exchange of information communication transactions, integration of various stand-alone systems and services between government-to-customer (G2C), government-to-business (G2B), government-to-government (G2G) as well as back office processes and interactions within the entire government framework.[1] Through e-governance, government services will be made available to citizens in a convenient, efficient and transparent manner. (†1256)
e-government (s.v. "E-government"): ‘E-Gov Strategies' (or Digital Government) is defined as ‘The employment of the Internet and the world-wide-web for delivering government information and services to the citizens.’ (United Nations, 2006; AOEMA, 2005).[2]
'Electronic Government' (or in short 'e-Government') essentially refers to ‘The utilization of Information Technology (IT), Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and other web-based telecommunication technologies to improve and/or enhance on the efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery in the public sector.’ (Jeong, 2007).[1]
E-government describes the use of technologies to facilitate the operation of government and the dispersement of government information and services. E-government, short for electronic government, deals heavily with Internet and non-internet applications to aid in governments. E-government includes the use of electronics in government as large-scale as the use of telephones and fax machines, as well as surveillance systems, tracking systems such as RFID tags, and even the use of television and radios to provide government-related information and services to the citizens. (†437)
e-participation (s.v. e-participation): ICT-supported participation in processes involved in government and governance. Processes may concern administration, service delivery, decision making and policy making. E-participation is hence closely related to e-government and (e-)governance participation.[Jafarkarimi, Sim, Saadatdoost and Hee, 2014] (†1250)
electronically stored information (s.v. electronically stored information): Information created, manipulated, communicated, stored, and best utilized in digital form, requiring the use of computer hardware and software.[Paul and Nearon, 2006] (†1255)
encryption (s.v. encryption): The process of encoding messages or information in such a way that only authorized parties can read it.[Encryption Basics, 2013] Encryption does not of itself prevent interception, but denies the message content to the interceptor.[Goldreich, 2004] (†1254)
end user license agreement (s.v. end-user license agreement): In proprietary software, an end-user license agreement (EULA) or software license agreement is the contract between the licensor and purchaser, establishing the purchaser's right to use the software. The license may define ways under which the copy can be used, in addition to the automatic rights of the buyer including the first sale doctrine and 17 U.S.C. § 117 (freedom to use, archive, re-sale, and backup). (†1253)
enterprise risk management (s.v. enterprise risk management): The methods and processes used by organizations to manage risks and seize opportunities related to the achievement of their objectives. ERM provides a framework for risk management, which typically involves identifying particular events or circumstances relevant to the organization's objectives (risks and opportunities), assessing them in terms of likelihood and magnitude of impact, determining a response strategy, and monitoring progress. By identifying and proactively addressing risks and opportunities, business enterprises protect and create value for their stakeholders, including owners, employees, customers, regulators, and society overall. (†1252)
entity (s.v. entity): Something that exists in itself, actually or potentially, concretely or abstractly, physically or not. It need not be of material existence. In particular, abstractions and legal fictions are usually regarded as entities. In general, there is also no presumption that an entity is animate. (†1251)
evaluation (s.v. evaluation): A systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization, program, project or any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realisable concept/proposal, or any alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value in regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has been completed. (†1249)
evidence (s.v. "evidence"): Evidence, broadly construed, is anything presented in support of an assertion.[1] This support may be strong or weak. The strongest type of evidence is that which provides direct proof of the truth of an assertion. At the other extreme is evidence that is merely consistent with an assertion but does not rule out other, contradictory assertions, as in circumstantial evidence.
¶ In law, rules of evidence govern the types of evidence that are admissible in a legal proceeding. Types of legal evidence include testimony, documentary evidence, and physical evidence. The parts of a legal case which are not in controversy are known, in general, as the "facts of the case." Beyond any facts that are undisputed, a judge or jury is usually tasked with being a trier of fact for the other issues of a case. Evidence and rules are used to decide questions of fact that are disputed, some of which may be determined by the legal burden of proof relevant to the case. Evidence in certain cases (e.g. capital crimes) must be more compelling than in other situations (e.g. minor civil disputes), which drastically affects the quality and quantity of evidence necessary to decide a case.
¶ Scientific evidence consists of observations and experimental results that serve to support, refute, or modify a scientific hypothesis or theory, when collected and interpreted in accordance with the scientific method. (†2636)
extraterritorial (s.v. "Extraterritoriality"): Extraterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. Extraterritoriality can also be applied to physical places, such as foreign embassies, military bases of foreign countries, or offices of the United Nations. The three most common cases recognized today internationally relate to the persons and belongings of foreign heads of state, the persons and belongings of ambassadors and other diplomats, and ships in foreign waters.
Extraterritoriality is often extended to friendly or allied militaries, particularly for the purposes of allowing that military to simply pass through one's territory.
It is distinguished from personal jurisdiction in the sense that extraterritoriality operates to the prejudice of local jurisdiction. (†444)
fiduciary trust (s.v. fiduciary trust): A relationship in which a trustee holds the title to assets for the beneficiary. The trust's creator is called the grantor. One usage of the term "fiduciary trust" is to distinguish the word "trust" from usage in general contexts where it does not imply a trustee-beneficiary relationship, and also sometimes to distinguish it from implied trusts (such as some constructive trusts and some resulting trusts) in which the trustee does not have express intent of a major fiduciary duty involving nontrivial discretion on the part of the trustee. (†1248)
fonds (s.v. fonds): The aggregation of documents that originate from the same source. More specifically, a fonds distinguishes itself from a collection through its organic nature, as archival documents that have been naturally accumulated (made or received) by an individual, company, institution, etc. as a byproduct of business or day-to-day activities. (†1246)
form (s.v. form): The shape, visual appearance, constitution or configuration of an object. In a wider sense, the form is the way something is or happens. (†1245)
framework agreement (s.v. framework agreement): An agreement between two parties that recognizes that the parties have not come to a final agreement on all matters relevant to the relationship between them, but have come to agreement on enough matters to move forward with the relationship, with further details to be agreed to in the future. In international law, such an agreement between countries or groups can acknowledge that they can not reach full agreement on all issues, but are willing to memorialize a structure by which some disagreements can be resolved. (†1933)
good faith (s.v. "good faith (law)"): In contract law, the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing is a general presumption that the parties to a contract will deal with each other honestly, fairly, and in good faith, so as to not destroy the right of the other party or parties to receive the benefits of the contract. (†403)
governance (s.v. "governance"): All processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through laws, norms, power or language. [Bevir, Mark (2013)] It relates to the processes of interaction and decision-making among the actors involved in a collective problem that lead to the creation, reinforcement, or reproduction of social norms and institutions. [Hufty, Marc (2011)] (†929)
hybrid cloud (s.v. "Cloud computing"): Hybrid cloud is a composition of two or more clouds (private, community or public) that remain unique entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation, managed and/or dedicated services with cloud resources. (†457)
hype cycle (s.v. hype cycle): A branded graphical tool developed and used by IT research and advisory firm Gartner for representing the maturity, adoption and social application of specific technologies. (†1243)
identifier (s.v. identifier): A name that identifies (that is, labels the identity of) either a unique object or a unique class of objects, where the "object" or class may be an idea, physical [countable] object (or class thereof), or physical [noncountable] substance (or class thereof)... An identifier may be a word, number, letter, symbol, or any combination of those. (†1244)
identity management (s.v. identity management): describes the management of individual principals, their authentication, authorization, and privileges within or across system and enterprise boundaries with the goal of increasing security and productivity while decreasing cost, downtime and repetitive tasks. (†1242)
impact (s.v. impact evaluation): assesses the changes that can be attributed to a particular intervention, such as a project, program or policy, both the intended ones, as well as ideally the unintended ones. In contrast to outcome monitoring, which examines whether targets have been achieved, impact evaluation is structured to answer the question: how would outcomes such as participants’ well-being have changed if the intervention had not been undertaken? (†1241)
information (s.v. information): That which informs, i.e. an answer to a question, as well as that from which knowledge and data can be derived (as data represents values attributed to parameters, and knowledge signifies understanding of real things or abstract concepts). As it regards data, the information's existence is not necessarily coupled to an observer (it exists beyond an event horizon, for example), while in the case of knowledge, information requires a cognitive observer. (†1240)
information and communications technology governance (s.v. "Information and communications technolo): Information and communications technology (ICT) is often used as an extended synonym for information technology (IT), but is a more specific term that stresses the role of unified communications[1] and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.[2] (†435)
information asset (s.v. asset (computer security)): In information security, computer security and network security an Asset is any data, device, or other component of the environment that supports information-related activities. Assets generally include hardware (e.g. servers and switches), software (e.g. mission critical applications and support systems) and confidential information. Assets should be protected from illicit access, use, disclosure, alteration, destruction, and/or theft, resulting in loss to the organization. (†1238)
information assurance (s.v. information assurance): The practice of assuring information and managing risks related to the use, processing, storage, and transmission of information or data and the systems and processes used for those purposes. Information assurance includes protection of the integrity, availability, authenticity, non-repudiation and confidentiality of user data. It uses physical, technical and administrative controls to accomplish these tasks. While focused predominantly on information in digital form, the full range of IA encompasses not only digital but also analog or physical form. (†1236)
information assurance (s.v. information assurance): Information assurance is the process of adding business benefit through the use of Information Risk Management which increases the utility of information to authorized users, and reduces the utility of information to those unauthorized. It is strongly related to the field of information security, and also with business continuity. IA relates more to the business level and strategic risk management of information and related systems, rather than the creation and application of security controls. Therefore in addition to defending against malicious hackers and code (e.g., viruses), IA practitioners consider corporate governance issues such as privacy, regulatory and standards compliance, auditing, business continuity, and disaster recovery as they relate to information systems. Further, while information security draws primarily from computer science, IA is an interdisciplinary field requiring expertise in business, accounting, user experience, fraud examination, forensic science, management science, systems engineering, security engineering, and criminology, in addition to computer science. Therefore, IA is best thought of as a superset of information security (i.e. umbrella term), and as the business outcome of Information Risk Management. (†1237)
information governance (s.v. "information governance"): The set of multi-disciplinary structures, policies, procedures, processes and controls implemented to manage information at an enterprise level, supporting an organization's immediate and future regulatory, legal, risk, environmental and operational requirements.
¶IG encompasses more than traditional records management. It incorporates privacy attributes, electronic discovery requirements, storage optimization, and metadata management. (†607)
information governance (s.v. "information governance"): In 2003 the Department of Health in England introduced the concept of broad based information governance into the National Health Service, publishing version 1 of an online performance assessment tool with supporting guidance. The NHS IG Toolkit[6] is now used by over 30,000 NHS and partner organisations, supported by an e-learning platform with some 650,000 users.
In 2008, ARMA International introduced the Generally Accepted Recordkeeping Principles, or "The Principles" and the subsequent "The Principles" Information Governance Maturity Model. "The Principles" identify the critical hallmarks of information governance. As such, they apply to all sizes of organizations, in all types of industries, and in both the private and public sectors. (†608)
information professional (s.v. "information professional"): An information professional or information specialist is someone who collects, records, organises, stores, preserves, retrieves, and disseminates printed or digital information.
¶ The term is most frequently used interchangeably with the term 'librarian', or as a progression of it. Librarians traditionally managed information contained in books or other paper records. Nowadays, however, libraries make extensive use of modern media and technology, hence the role of librarians has been enhanced. The versatile term 'information professional' is also used to describe other similar professions, such as archivists, information managers, information systems specialists, and records managers. Information professionals work in a variety of private, public, and academic institutions. (†2730)
information security (s.v. information security): Information security, sometimes shortened to InfoSec, is the practice of defending information from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection, recording or destruction. It is a general term that can be used regardless of the form the data may take (e.g. electronic, physical). (†1234)
information technology governance (s.v. information technology governance): A subset discipline of corporate governance, focused on information and technology (IT) and its performance and risk management. (†933)
information technology governance (s.v. information technology governance): IT governance systematically involves everyone: board members, executive management, staff, customers, communities, investors and regulators. An IT Governance framework is used to identify, establish and link the mechanisms to oversee the use of information and related technology to create value and manage the risks associated with using information and technology. (†934)
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) (s.v. "Cloud computing"): In the most basic cloud-service model, providers of IaaS offer computers – physical or (more often) virtual machines – and other resources. (A hypervisor, such as Xen, Oracle VirtualBox, KVM, VMware ESX/ESXi, or Hyper-V runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational support-system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers' varying requirements.) IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual-machine disk image library, raw block storage, and file or object storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles. IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools installed in data centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). (†567)
inherent risk (s.v. inherent risk): Measures the auditor's assessment of the likelihood that there are material misstatements due to error or fraud in segment before considering the effectiveness of internal control. If the auditor concludes that a high likelihood exist, the auditor will conclude that inherent risk is high. (†1233)
integrity (s.v. integrity): The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles; moral uprightness... The word integrity evolved from the Latin adjective integer, meaning whole or complete [American Heritage Dictionary, 2000]. In this context, integrity is the inner sense of "wholeness" deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency of character. As such, one may judge that others "have integrity" to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold. (†1232)
internet (s.v. internet): A global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is an international network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government packet switched networks, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. (†1231)
knowledge discovery (s.v. knowledge extraction): The creation of knowledge from structured (relational databases, XML) and unstructured (text, documents, images) sources. The resulting knowledge needs to be in a machine-readable and machine-interpretable format and must represent knowledge in a manner that facilitates inferencing. Although it is methodically similar to information extraction (NLP) and ETL (data warehouse), the main criteria is that the extraction result goes beyond the creation of structured information or the transformation into a relational schema. It requires either the reuse of existing formal knowledge (reusing identifiers or ontologies) or the generation of a schema based on the source data. (†1205)
legal hold (s.v. legal hold): A process that an organization uses to preserve all forms of relevant information when litigation is reasonably anticipated.
The legal hold is initiated by a notice or communication from legal counsel to an organization that suspends the normal disposition or processing of records, such as backup tape recycling, archived media and other storage and management of documents and information. A legal hold will be issued as a result of current or anticipated litigation, audit, government investigation or other such matter to avoid evidence spoliation. Legal holds can encompass business procedures affecting active data, including, but not limited to, backup tape recycling. (†1110)
liability (s.v. liability): Something that is a hindrance or puts an individual or group at a disadvantage, or something that someone is responsible for, or something that increases the chance of something occurring (i.e. it is a cause). (†1111)
m-government (s.v. "M-government"): Mobile government, mGovernment, is the extension of eGovernment to mobile platforms, as well as the strategic use of government services and applications which are only possible using cellular/mobile telephones, laptop computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and wireless internet infrastructure. [...] Mobile Government can be defined "as a strategy and its implementation involving the utilization of all kinds of wireless and mobile technology, services, applications and devices for improving benefits to the parties involved in e-government including citizens, businesses and all government units" (Kushchu and Kuscu, 2003) (†438)
management (s.v. management): Management in business and organizations is the function that coordinates the efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization to accomplish the goal. (†963)
mashup (s.v. mashup (web application hybrid)): A web page, or web application, that uses content from more than one source to create a single new service displayed in a single graphical interface. ...The term implies easy, fast integration, frequently using open application programming interfaces (open API) and data sources to produce enriched results that were not necessarily the original reason for producing the raw source data. (†1062)
maturity model (s.v. Capability Maturity Model): A set of structured levels that describe how well the behaviors, practices and processes of an organization can reliably and sustainably produce required outcomes. (†1456)
maturity model (s.v. Capability Maturity Model): There are five levels defined along the continuum of the model... 1- Initial (chaotic, ad hoc, individual heroics) - the starting point for use of a new or undocumented repeat process. 2- Repeatable - the process is at least documented sufficiently such that repeating the same steps may be attempted. 3 - Defined - the process is defined/confirmed as a standard business processes. 4 - Managed - the process is quantitatively managed in accordance with agreed-upon metrics. 5 - Optimizing - process management includes deliberate process optimization/improvement. (†1457)
measured service (s.v. cloud computing): Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service. (†1063)
metadata (s.v. metadata): Metadata is "data about data". ...The data providing information about one or more aspects of the data, such as: means of creation of the data, purpose of the data, time and date of creation, creator or author of the data, location on a computer network where the data were created, and standards used. (†1064)
metadata (s.v. metadata): By describing the contents and context of data files, the usefulness of the original data/files is greatly increased. ...The main purpose of metadata is to facilitate in the discovery of relevant information, more often classified as resource discovery. Metadata also helps organize electronic resources, provide digital identification, and helps support archiving and preservation of the resource. Metadata assists in resource discovery by "allowing resources to be found by relevant criteria, identifying resources, bringing similar resources together, distinguishing dissimilar resources, and giving location information." [NISO, 2004] (†1065)
migration (s.v. data migration): The process of transferring data between storage types, formats, or computer systems. (†1066)
on-demand self-service (s.v. cloud computing): A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider. (†1067)
open architecture (s.v. open architecture): A type of computer architecture or software architecture that is designed to make adding, upgrading and swapping components easy.[Ericson, II, 2011] ...An architecture whose specifications are public. This includes officially approved standards as well as privately designed architectures whose specifications are made public by the designers. The opposite of open is closed or proprietary. (†1068)
open data (s.v. "open data"): Open data is the idea that certain data should be freely available to everyone to use and republish as they wish, without restrictions from copyright, patents or other mechanisms of control.[1] The goals of the open data movement are similar to those of other "Open" movements such as open source, open hardware, open content, and open access. The philosophy behind open data has been long established (for example in the Mertonian tradition of science), but the term "open data" itself is recent, gaining popularity with the rise of the Internet and World Wide Web and, especially, with the launch of open-data government initiatives such as Data.gov and Data.gov.uk. (†223)
open data (s.v. open data): The idea that certain data should be freely available to everyone to use and republish as they wish, without restrictions from copyright, patents or other mechanisms of control.[Auer, Bizer, et. al, 2007] (†1069)
open government (s.v. open government): The governing doctrine which holds that citizens have the right to access the documents and proceedings of the government to allow for effective public oversight.[Lathrop & Ruma, 2010] (†1070)
open government data (s.v. open data): The rationale behind open government data can be considered as twofold.[Brito, 2008] First, advocates contend that making government data available to the public in open formats increases government transparency and accountability. Second, open data should enable third parties to leverage the potential of government data through the development of applications and services that address public and private demands. (†1071)
open source (s.v. open source): A development model promotes a universal access via a free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint, including subsequent improvements to it by anyone.[Lakhani & von Hippel, 2003][Gerber & Van der Merwe, 2010] (†1072)
operational risk (s.v. "operational risk, background"): Until Basel II reforms to banking supervision, operational risk was a residual category reserved for risks and uncertainties which were difficult to quantify and manage in traditional ways[4] - the "other risks" basket.
¶ Such regulations institutionalized operational risk as a category of regulatory and managerial attention and connected operational risk management with good corporate governance. (†811)
operational risk (s.v. "operational risk"): The risk of a change in value caused by the fact that actual losses, incurred for inadequate or failed internal processes, people and systems, or from external events (including legal risk), differ from the expected losses". This definition from the Basel II regulations was also adopted by the European union Solvency II Directive."
¶ It can also include other classes of risk, such as fraud, security, privacy protection, legal risks, physical (e.g. infrastructure shutdown) or environmental risks.
¶ Operational risk is a broad discipline, close to good management and quality management. In similar fashion, operational risks affect client satisfaction, reputation and shareholder value, all while increasing business volatility.
¶ Contrary to other risks (e.g. credit risk, market risk, insurance risk) operational risks are usually not willingly incurred nor are they revenue driven. Moreover, they are not diversifiable and cannot be laid off, meaning that, as long as people, systems and processes remain imperfect, operational risk cannot be fully eliminated.
¶ Operational risk is, nonetheless, manageable as to keep losses within some level of risk tolerance (i.e. the amount of risk one is prepared to accept in pursuit of his objectives), determined by balancing the costs of improvement against the expected benefits. (†810)
operational risk (s.v. operational risk): "the risk of a change in value caused by the fact that actual losses, incurred for inadequate or failed internal processes, people and systems, or from external events (including legal risk), differ from the expected losses". ...It can also include other classes of risk, such as fraud, security, privacy protection, legal risks, physical (e.g. infrastructure shutdown) or environmental risks. ...operational risks affect client satisfaction, reputation and shareholder value, all while increasing business volatility. (†1073)
organization (s.v. organization): An entity, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. (†1074)
outage (s.v. outage): Unavailability or decrease in quality of service due to unexpected behavior of that particular service, or an incident impacting consumers that results in a service not being delivered at a level they reasonably expected. (†1529)
patent (s.v. patent): A set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. ...Patents are a form of intellectual property. (†1055)
personal cloud (s.v. "personal cloud"): A collection of digital content and services which are accessible from any device. The personal cloud is not a tangible entity. It is a place which gives users the ability to store, synchronize, stream and share content on a relative core, moving from one platform, screen and location to another. Created on connected services and applications, it reflects and sets consumers’ expectations for how next-generation computing services will work.
¶ The four primary types of personal cloud in use today are: Online cloud, NAS device cloud, server device cloud, and home-made clouds. (†2664)
personal cloud : A network-attached storage (NAS) device is a computer connected to a network that provides only file-based data storage services to other devices on the network. Although it may technically be possible to run other software on a NAS device, it is not designed to be a general purpose server. Cloud NAS is remote storage that is accessed over the Internet as if it were local.
¶ A cloud NAS is often used for backups and archiving. One of the benefits of NAS Cloud is that data in the cloud can be accessed at any time from anywhere. The main drawback, however, is that the speed of the transfer rate is only as fast as the network connection the data is accessed over and can therefore be fairly slow. Three examples of NAS personal clouds are the My Cloud by Western Digital, the CloudBox by Lacie, and the Central by Seagate. (†2665)
personally identifiable information (s.v. personally identifiable information): Information that can be used on its own or with other information to identify, contact, or locate a single person, or to identify an individual in context. (†1052)
personally identifiable information (s.v. "personally identifying information"): The abbreviation PII is widely accepted in the US context, but the phrase it abbreviates has four common variants based on personal / personally, and identifiable / identifying. Not all are equivalent, and for legal purposes the effective definitions vary depending on the jurisdiction and the purposes for which the term is being used. (†1563)
Platform as a Service (PaaS) (s.v. "Platform as a service"): Platform as a service (PaaS) is a category of cloud computing services that provides a computing platform and a solution stack as a service.[1] Along with software as a service (SaaS) and infrastructure as a service (IaaS), it is a service model of cloud computing. In this model, the consumer creates the software using tools and/or libraries from the provider. The consumer also controls software deployment and configuration settings. The provider provides the networks, servers, storage, and other services that are required to host the consumer's application.[2]
PaaS offerings facilitate the deployment of applications without the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and software and provisioning hosting capabilities.[3] (†464)
Platform as a Service (PaaS) (s.v. "Cloud computing"): In the PaaS models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically including operating system, programming language execution environment, database, and web server. Application developers can develop and run their software solutions on a cloud platform without the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS offers like Microsoft Azure and Google App Engine, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually. The latter has also been proposed by an architecture aiming to facilitate real-time in cloud environments. (†568)
preservation metadata (s.v. preservation metadata): Information that supports and documents the digital preservation process. ...Preservation metadata stores technical details on the format, structure and use of the digital content, the history of all actions performed on the resource including changes and decisions, the authenticity information such as technical features or custody history, and the responsibilities and rights information applicable to preservation actions.[CEDARS 2000] (†1051)
preservation metadata (s.v. preservation metadata): Preservation metadata often includes the following information:
Provenance: Who has had custody/ownership of the digital object?
Authenticity: Is the digital object what it purports to be?
Preservation activity: What has been done to preserve the digital object?
Technical environment: What is needed to render, interact with and use the digital object?
Rights management: What intellectual property rights must be observed?[PREMIS] (†1075)
privacy (s.v. privacy): The ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves, or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. (†1049)
privacy (s.v. privacy): The boundaries and content of what is considered private differ among cultures and individuals, but share common themes. When something is private to a person, it usually means that something is inherently special or sensitive to them. The domain of privacy partially overlaps security, which can include the concepts of appropriate use, as well as protection of information. (†1050)
private cloud (s.v. "Cloud computing"): Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally.[5] Undertaking a private cloud project requires a significant level and degree of engagement to virtualize the business environment, and requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing resources. When done right, it can improve business, but every step in the project raises security issues that must be addressed to prevent serious vulnerabilities.[79] Self-run data centers are generally capital intensive. They have a significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space, hardware, and environmental controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional capital expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage them" and thus do not benefit from less hands-on management,[80] essentially "[lacking] the economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept".[81][82] (†432)
profession (s.v. "profession"): A vocation founded upon specialized educational training, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested objective counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain. (†2706)
profession (s.v. "professional"): A member of a profession or any person who earns their living from a specified professional activity. The term also describes the standards of education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and skills necessary to perform their specific role within that profession. In addition, most professionals are subject to strict codes of conduct, enshrining rigorous ethical and moral obligations.[1] Professional standards of practice and ethics for a particular field are typically agreed upon and maintained through widely recognized professional associations, such as the IEEE. Some definitions of "professional" limit this term to those professions that serve some important aspect of public interest and the general good of society. (†2707)
proprietary (s.v. proprietary software): Computer software licensed under exclusive legal right of the copyright holder with the intent that the licensee is given the right to use the software only under certain conditions, and restricted from other uses, such as modification, sharing, studying, redistribution, or reverse engineering.[Chillingeffects.org][Linfo.org] Usually the source code of proprietary software is not made available. (†1047)
provenance (s.v. provenance): Provenance (from the French provenir, "to come from"), is the chronology of the ownership, custody, or location of a historical object.[OED] The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including archaeology, paleontology, archives, manuscripts, printed books, and science and computing. The primary purpose of tracing the provenance of an object or entity is normally to provide contextual and circumstantial evidence for its original production or discovery, by establishing, as far as practicable, its later history, especially the sequences of its formal ownership, custody, and places of storage. The practice has a particular value in helping authenticate objects. (†1046)
provisioning (s.v. dynamic provisioning environment): A simplified way to explain a complex networked server computing environment where server computing instances or virtual machines (VMs) are provisioned (deployed or instantiated) from a centralized administrative console or client application by the server administrator, network administrator, or any other enabled user. The server administrator or network administrator has the ability to parse out control of the provisioning environment to users or accounts in the network environment (end users, organizational units, network accounts, other administrators). The provisioned servers or VMs can be inside the firewall, outside the firewall, or hosted depending on how the supporting pool of networked server computing resources is defined. From the perspective of the end user/client the requested server is deployed automatically. (†1422)
pseudonym (s.v. "anonymity"): Pseudonyms are widely used in social networks and other virtual communication, although recently some important service providers like Google try to discourage pseudonymity.
¶ Someone using a pseudonym would be strictly considered to be using "pseudonymity" not "anonymity", but sometimes the latter is used to refer to both (in general, a situation where the legal identity of the person is disguised). (†590)
public cloud (s.v. "Cloud computing"): A cloud is called a "public cloud" when the services are rendered over a network that is open for public use. Technically there may be little or no difference between public and private cloud architecture, however, security consideration may be substantially different for services (applications, storage, and other resources) that are made available by a service provider for a public audience and when communication is effected over a non-trusted network. Generally, public cloud service providers like Amazon AWS, Microsoft and Google own and operate the infrastructure and offer access only via Internet (direct connectivity is not offered).[41] (†433)
qualitative risk assessment (s.v. IT risk management): Qualitative risk assessment (three to five steps evaluation, from Very High to Low) is performed when the organization requires a risk assessment be performed in a relatively short time or to meet a small budget, a significant quantity of relevant data is not available, or the persons performing the assessment don't have the sophisticated mathematical, financial, and risk assessment expertise required. Qualitative risk assessment can be performed in a shorter period of time and with less data. Qualitative risk assessments are typically performed through interviews of a sample of personnel from all relevant groups within an organization charged with the security of the asset being assessed. Qualitative risk assessments are descriptive versus measurable. Usually a qualitative classification is done followed by a quantitative evaluation of the highest risks to be compared to the costs of security measures. (†1036)
quantitative risk assessment (s.v. IT risk management): Purely quantitative risk assessment is a mathematical calculation based on security metrics on the asset (system or application). For each risk scenario, taking into consideration the different risk factors a Single loss expectancy (SLE) is determined. Then, considering the probability of occurrence on a given period basis, for example the annual rate of occurrence (ARO), the Annualized Loss Expectancy is determined as the product of ARO X SLE. It is important to point out that the values of assets to be considered are those of all involved assets, not only the value of the directly affected resource. (†1037)
rapid elasticity (s.v. cloud computing): Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time. (†1275)
record (s.v. record): A document for administrative use. (†1014)
record (s.v. records management): Something that represents proof of existence and that can be used to recreate or prove state of existence, regardless of medium or characteristics. A record is either created or received by an organization in pursuance of or compliance with legal obligations, or in the transaction of business.[ARMA International] Records can be either tangible objects, such as paper documents like birth certificates, driver's licenses, and physical medical x-rays, or digital information, such as electronic office documents, data in application databases, web site content, and electronic mail (email). (†1017)
records lifecycle (s.v. records life-cycle): The stages of a record's "life span" including creation or receipt of the information as a record, classification of the record, maintenance and use of the record, and disposition through destruction or transfer to an archives. (†1015)
records management (s.v. records management): The professional practice or discipline of controlling and governing what are considered to be the most important records of an organization throughout the records life-cycle. (†1016)
redaction : A form of editing in which multiple source texts are combined (redacted) and altered slightly to make a single document. Often this is a method of collecting a series of writings on a similar theme and creating a definitive and coherent work.
¶ The term is also used to describe removal of some document content, replacing it typically with black rectangles which indicate the removal, although this usage was not documented by authorities such as the Oxford English Dictionary as of 2016, though earlier editions gave only this definition. For example, originally classified documents released under freedom of information legislation may have sensitive information redacted in this way. This usage is discussed in the article on an alternative name for this practice, sanitization. (†2671)
reidentification (s.v. de-identification): The reverse process of defeating de-identification to identify individuals. (†1654)
reputation management (s.v. reputation management): The understanding or influencing of an individual's or business's reputation. (†1026)
reputation management (s.v. reputation management): Originally coined as a public relations term, but advancement in computing, the internet and social media made it primarily an issue of search results. Some parts of reputation management are often associated with ethical grey areas, such as astroturfing review sites, censoring negative complaints or using SEO tactics to game the system and influence results. There are also ethical forms of reputation management, which are frequently used, such as responding to customer complaints, asking sites to take down incorrect information and using online feedback to influence product development.[Harris, 2010;Sterling, 2010] (†1027)
reputation management : Reputation management (sometimes referred to as rep management or ORM) is the practice of attempting to shape public perception of a person or organization by influencing information about that entity, primarily online. What necessitates this shaping of perceptions being the role of consumers in any organisation and the cognisance of how much if ignored these perceptions may harm a company's performance at any time of the year, a risk no entrepreneur or company executive can afford.
¶ Specifically, reputation management involves the monitoring of the reputation of an individual or a brand on the internet, addressing content which is potentially damaging to it, and using customer feedback to try to solve problems before they damage the individual's or brand's reputation.[16] A major part of reputation management involves suppressing negative search results, while highlighting positive ones. For businesses, reputation management usually involves an attempt to bridge the gap between how a company perceives itself and how others view it. (†2692)
residual risk (s.v. residual risk): The risk or danger of an action or event, a method or a (technical) process that, although being abreast with science, still conceives these dangers, even if all theoretically possible safety measures would be applied (scientifically conceivable measures). The formula to calculate residual risk is (inherent risk) x (control risk) where inherent risk is (threats × vulnerability). (†1019)
resilience (s.v. resilience): Resilience can broadly be defined as "the ability [of a system] to cope with change".[Weiland & Wallenburg, 2013] (†1020)
resilience (s.v. resilience (network)): In computer networking: “Resiliency is the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of faults and challenges to normal operation.” Threats and challenges for services can range from simple misconfiguration over large scale natural disasters to targeted attacks. As such, network resilience touches a very wide range of topics. In order to increase the resilience of a given communication network, the probable challenges and risks have to be identified and appropriate resilience metrics have to be defined for the service to be protected. (†1235)
resource pooling (s.v. cloud computing): The provider's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand. (†1274)
retention period (s.v. retention period): An aspect of records management; it represents the period of time a document should be kept or "retained" both electronically and in paper format. At the termination of the retention period, the document is usually destroyed. ...The retention period varies for different types of records. (†1021)
retrieval (s.v. "information retrieval"): The activity of obtaining information resources relevant to an information need from a collection of information resources. Searches can be based on full-text or other content-based indexing. Information retrieval is the science of searching for information in a document, searching for documents themselves, and also searching for metadata that describe data, and for databases of texts, images or sounds. (†2655)
retrieval (s.v. "image retrieval"): A computer system for browsing, searching and retrieving images from a large database of digital images. Most traditional and common methods of image retrieval utilize some method of adding metadata such as captioning', keywords, or descriptions to the images so that retrieval can be performed over the annotation words. (†2656)
retrieval (s.v. "document retrieval"): The matching of some stated user query against a set of free-text records. These records could be any type of mainly unstructured text, such as newspaper articles, real estate records or paragraphs in a manual. User queries can range from multi-sentence full descriptions of an information need to a few words.
¶ Document retrieval is sometimes referred to as, or as a branch of, text retrieval. Text retrieval is a branch of information retrieval where the information is stored primarily in the form of text. (†2657)
right to be forgotten (s.v. right to be forgotten): A concept that has been discussed and put into practice in the European Union (EU) and in Argentina since 2006.[New York Times, lanacion.com] The issue has arisen from the desires of some individuals to "determine the development of his life in an autonomous way, without being perpetually or periodically stigmatized as a consequence of a specific action performed in the past."[Matelero, 2013] There has been considerable controversy about the practicality of establishing a right to be forgotten to the status of an international human right in respect to access to information, due in part to the vagueness of current rulings attempting to implement such a right.[Fleischer, 2011] There are concerns about its impact on the right to freedom of expression, its interaction with the right to privacy, and whether creating a right to be forgotten would decrease the quality of the Internet through censorship and a rewriting of history,[Mayes, 2014] and opposing concerns about problems such as revenge porn sites appearing in Google search listings for a person's name, or references to petty crimes committed many years ago indefinitely remaining an unduly prominent part of a person's Google footprint.[Arthur, 2014] (†1023)
risk (s.v. "risk"): 1. An uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has an effect on at least one [project] objective. (This definition, using project terminology, is easily made universal by removing references to projects).
– 2. The probability of something happening multiplied by the resulting cost or benefit if it does. (This concept is more properly known as the 'Expectation Value' or 'Risk Factor' and is used to compare levels of risk)
– 3. The probability or threat of quantifiable damage, injury, liability, loss, or any other negative occurrence that is caused by external or internal vulnerabilities, and that may be avoided through preemptive action. (†632)
risk (s.v. "risk"): Values (such as physical health, social status, emotional well being or financial wealth) can be gained or lost when taking risk resulting from a given action, activity and/or inaction, foreseen or unforeseen. Risk can also be defined as the intentional interaction with uncertainty. Risk perception is the subjective judgment people make about the severity of a risk, and may vary person to person. Any human endeavor carries some risk, but some are much riskier than others. (†633)
risk (s.v. "ISO 31000"): ISO 31000:2009 gives a list on how to deal with risk:
· Avoiding the risk by deciding not to start or continue with the activity that gives rise to the risk
· Accepting or increasing the risk in order to pursue an opportunity
· Removing the risk source
· Changing the likelihood
· Changing the consequences
· Sharing the risk with another party or parties (including contracts and risk financing)
· Retaining the risk by informed decision (†635)
risk (s.v. "ISO 31000"): ISO 31000 is a family of standards relating to risk management codified by the International Organization for Standardization. The purpose of ISO 31000:2009 is to provide principles and generic guidelines on risk management. ISO 31000 seeks to provide a universally recognised paradigm for practitioners and companies employing risk management processes to replace the myriad of existing standards, methodologies and paradigms that differed between industries, subject matters and regions. . . .
¶One of the key paradigm shifts proposed in ISO 31000 is a controversial change in how risk is conceptualised. Under the ISO 31000:2009 and a consequential major revision of the terminology in ISO Guide 73, the definition of "risk" is no longer "chance or probability of loss", but "the effect of uncertainty on objectives" ... thus causing the word "risk" to refer to positive possibilities as well as negative ones. (†634)
risk analysis (s.v. asset (computer security)): When performing risk analysis it is important to weigh how much to spend protecting each asset against the cost of losing the asset. It is also important to take into account the chance of each loss occurring. Intangible costs must also be factored in. If a hacker makes a copy of all a company's credit card numbers it does not cost them anything directly but the loss in fines and reputation can be enormous. (†1239)
risk assessment (s.v. risk assessment): The determination of quantitative or qualitative value of risk related to a concrete situation and a recognized threat (also called hazard). Quantitative risk assessment requires calculations of two components of risk (R):, the magnitude of the potential loss (L), and the probability (p) that the loss will occur. (†1024)
risk management (s.v "risk management"): Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks (defined in ISO 31000 as the effect of uncertainty on objectives) followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities. (†636)
rumor (rumor): "A tall tale of explanations of events circulating from person to person and pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern".[Peterson & Gist, 1951] ...In the social sciences, a rumor involves some kind of a statement whose veracity is not quickly or ever confirmed. ...Rumors are also often discussed with regard to "misinformation" and "disinformation" (the former often seen as simply false and the latter seen as deliberately false, though usually from a government source given to the media or a foreign government).[OED, 1989] (†1025)
safe harbor (s.v. "International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles"): The International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles or Safe Harbour Privacy Principles were principles developed between 1998 and 2000 in order to prevent private organizations within the European Union or United States which store customer data from accidentally disclosing or losing personal information. They were overturned on October 6, 2015 by the European Court of Justice (ECJ), which enabled some US companies to comply with privacy laws protecting European Union and Swiss citizens. (†2659)
safe harbor (s.v. "safe harbor (law)"): A provision of a statute or a regulation that specifies that certain conduct will be deemed not to violate a given rule. It is usually found in connection with a vaguer, overall standard. By contrast, "unsafe harbors" describe conduct that will be deemed to violate the rule.
¶ Safe harbors have been promoted by legal writers as reducing the uncertainty created by simply employing a vague standard (such as "recklessness"). On the other hand, this type of rule formulation also avoids the problem of creating a precise rule that leaves a judge with no available discretion to allow for "hard cases." In theory, the safe harbor formulation can combine the virtues of vague standards and precise rules, allowing legislatures to prescribe with certainty the advance outcome for specific foreseeable cases, and to leave to judges to decide the cases that remain. (†2658)
security (s.v. security (disambiguation)): The degree of protection against danger, damage, loss, and crime. (†998)
security (s.v. computer security): Security applied to computing devices such as computers and smartphones, as well as computer networks such as private and public networks, including the whole Internet. The field covers all the processes and mechanisms by which digital equipment, information and services are protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or destruction... It includes physical security to prevent theft of equipment, and information security to protect the data on that equipment. It is sometimes referred to as "cyber security" or "IT security", though these terms generally do not refer to physical security (locks and such). (†999)
security audit (s.v. information technology security audit): A manual or systematic measurable technical assessment of a system or application. (†997)
semi-structured data (s.v. "semi-structured data"): A form of structured data that does not conform with the formal structure of data models associated with relational databases or other forms of data tables, but nonetheless contains tags or other markers to separate semantic elements and enforce hierarchies of records and fields within the data. Therefore, it is also known as self-describing structure. (†614)
semi-structured data (s.v. "semi-structured data"): In the semi-structured data, the entities belonging to the same class may have different attributes even though they are grouped together, and the attributes' order is not important.
Semi-structured data is increasingly occurring since the advent of the Internet where full-text documents and databases are not the only forms of data any more and different applications need a medium for exchanging information. In object-oriented databases, one often finds semi-structured data. (†615)
sentiment analysis (s.v. "sentiment analysis"): Opinion mining (sometimes known as sentiment analysis or emotion AI) refers to the use of natural language processing, text analysis, computational linguistics, and biometrics to systematically identify, extract, quantify, and study affective states and subjective information. Sentiment analysis is widely applied to voice of the customer materials such as reviews and survey responses, online and social media, and healthcare materials for applications that range from marketing to customer service to clinical medicine.
Generally speaking, sentiment analysis aims to determine the attitude of a speaker, writer, or other subject with respect to some topic or the overall contextual polarity or emotional reaction to a document, interaction, or event. The attitude may be a judgment or evaluation (see appraisal theory), affective state (that is to say, the emotional state of the author or speaker), or the intended emotional communication (that is to say, the emotional effect intended by the author or interlocutor). (†2733)
service level agreement (s.v. "Service-level agreement"): A service-level agreement is an agreement between two or more parties, where one is the customer and the others are service providers. This can be a legally binding formal or an informal "contract" (for example, internal department relationships). Contracts between the service provider and other third parties are often (incorrectly) called SLAs – because the level of service has been set by the (principal) customer, there can be no "agreement" between third parties; these agreements are simply "contracts." Operational-level agreements or OLAs, however, may be used by internal groups to support SLAs.
SLAs commonly include segments to address: a definition of services, performance measurement, problem management, customer duties, warranties, disaster recovery, termination of agreement.[1] In order to ensure that SLAs are consistently met, these agreements are often designed with specific lines of demarcation and the parties involved are required to meet regularly to create an open forum for communication. Contract enforcement (rewards and penalties) should be rigidly enforced, but most SLAs also leave room for annual revisitation so that it is possible to make changes based on new information.[2] (†468)
social capital (s.v. social capital): The expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups. Although different social sciences emphasize different aspects of social capital, they tend to share the core idea "that social networks have value" [Putnam, 2000]. (†1000)
social media (s.v. social media): Computer-mediated tools that allow people to create, share or exchange information, ideas, and pictures/videos in virtual communities and networks. (†1001)
social network (s.v. social network): A social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or organizations) and a set of the dyadic ties between these actors. (†1002)
soft law (s.v. soft law): The quasi-legal instruments which do not have any legally binding force, or whose binding force is somewhat "weaker" than the binding force of traditional law, often contrasted with soft law by being referred to as "hard law". Traditionally, the term "soft law" is associated with international law, although more recently it has been transferred to other branches of domestic law as well. (†1003)
Software as a Service (SaaS) (s.v. "Cloud computing"): In the business model using software as a service (SaaS), users are provided access to application software and databases. Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis. SaaS providers generally price applications using a subscription fee.
¶In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications are different from other applications in their scalability–which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to meet changing work demand. Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access point. To accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, that is, any machine serves more than one cloud user organization. (†569)
Software as a Service (SaaS) (s.v. software as a service): Software licensing and delivery model in which software is licensed on a subscription basis and is centrally hosted. (†1004)
spoliation (s.v. spoliation of evidence): The intentional or negligent withholding, hiding, altering, or destroying of evidence relevant to a legal proceeding. (†1005)
Storage as a Service (STaaS) (s.v. "storage as a service"): n. ~ Storage as a Service (STaaS) is an architecture model in which a provider provides digital storage on their own infrastructure. Storage as a service can be implemented as a business model in which a large service provider rents space in their storage infrastructure on a subscription basis. The economy of scale in the service provider's infrastructure theoretically allows them to provide storage much more cost effectively than most individuals or corporations can provide their own storage, when total cost of ownership is considered. Storage as a Service is often used to solve offsite backup challenges. Critics of storage as a service point to the large amount of network bandwidth required to conduct their storage utilizing an internet-based service. (†860)
system (s.v. system (disambiguation) computer system): The combination of hardware and software which forms a complete, working computer. Computer systems will include the computer alongside any software (example: operating system, BIOS) and peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. (†1006)
terms of service (s.v. "terms of service"): Terms of service (also known as terms of use and terms and conditions, commonly abbreviated as ToS or TOS and TOU) are rules which one must agree to abide by in order to use a service. Terms of service can also be merely a disclaimer, especially regarding the use of websites. (†417)
text mining (s.v. "text mining"): Also referred to as text data mining, roughly equivalent to text analytics, refers to the process of deriving high-quality information from text. High-quality information is typically derived through the devising of patterns and trends through means such as statistical pattern learning. Text mining usually involves the process of structuring the input text (usually parsing, along with the addition of some derived linguistic features and the removal of others, and subsequent insertion into a database), deriving patterns within the structured data, and finally evaluation and interpretation of the output. 'High quality' in text mining usually refers to some combination of relevance, novelty, and interestingness. Typical text mining tasks include text categorization, text clustering, concept/entity extraction, production of granular taxonomies, sentiment analysis, document summarization, and entity relation modeling (i.e., learning relations between named entities).
¶ Text analysis involves information retrieval, lexical analysis to study word frequency distributions, pattern recognition, tagging/annotation, information extraction, data mining techniques including link and association analysis, visualization, and predictive analytics. The overarching goal is, essentially, to turn text into data for analysis, via application of natural language processing (NLP) and analytical methods. (†829)
threat (s.v. threat (computing)): In computer security a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security and thus cause possible harm. (RFC 2828 Internet Security Glossary)
(†985)
transparency (s.v. transparency (behavior)): Transparency, as used in science, engineering, business, the humanities and in a social context more generally, implies openness, communication, and accountability. Transparency is operating in such a way that it is easy for others to see what actions are performed. It has been defined simply as "the perceived quality of intentionally shared information from a sender".[Journal of Management, March 20, 2014, 10.1177/0149206314525202 ] (†986)
trust (s.v. trust (social sciences)): One party (trustor) is willing to rely on the actions of another party (trustee); the situation is directed to the future. In addition, the trustor (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control over the actions performed by the trustee. As a consequence, the trustor is uncertain about the outcome of the other's actions; they can only develop and evaluate expectations. The uncertainty involves the risk of failure or harm to the trustor if the trustee will not behave as desired.
Conceptually, trust is also attributable to relationships within and between social groups (families, friends, communities, organisations, companies, nations etc.). (†987)
trust (s.v. trust (social sciences)): When it comes to the relationship between people and technology, the attribution of trust is a matter of dispute. The intentional stance demonstrates that trust can be validly attributed to human relationships with complex technologies. However, rational reflection leads to the rejection of an ability to trust technological artifacts. [Schneiderman, 2000]
One of the key current challenges in the social sciences is to re-think how the rapid progress of technology has impacted constructs such as trust. This is specifically true for information technology that dramatically alters causation in social systems.[Luhmann, 2005] (†988)
trustworthiness (s.v. "trustworthy computing"): The terms trustworthy computing and trusted computing had distinct meanings. A given system can be trustworthy but not trusted and vice versa.
¶ The National Security Agency (NSA) defines a trusted system or component as one "whose failure can break the security policy", and a trustworthy system or component as one "that will not fail". Trusted Computing has been defined and outlined with a set of specifications and guidelines by the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance (TCPA), including secure input and output, memory curtaining, sealed storage, and remote attestation. As stated above, Trustworthy Computing aims to build consumer confidence in computers, by making them more reliable, and thus more widely used and accepted. (†872)
unstructured data (s.v. "data model"): A data model explicitly determines the structure of data or structured data. Typical applications of data models include database models, design of information systems, and enabling exchange of data. Usually data models are specified in a data modeling language. (†616)
unstructured data (s.v. "unstructured data"): Information that either does not have a pre-defined data model or is not organized in a pre-defined manner. Unstructured information is typically text-heavy, but may contain data such as dates, numbers, and facts as well. This results in irregularities and ambiguities that make it difficult to understand using traditional computer programs as compared to data stored in fielded form in databases or annotated (semantically tagged) in documents. (†617)
unstructured data (s.v. "unstructured data"): In 1998, Merrill Lynch cited a rule of thumb that somewhere around 80-90% of all potentially usable business information may originate in unstructured form. This rule of thumb is not based on primary or any quantitative research, but nonetheless is accepted by some.
¶IDC and EMC project that data will grow to 40 zettabytes by 2020, resulting in a 50-fold growth from the beginning of 2010. Computer World states that unstructured information might account for more than 70%–80% of all data in organizations. [Notes omitted.] (†618)
usability (s.v. usability): Usability is the ease of use and learnability of a human-made object. ...In human-computer interaction and computer science, usability studies the elegance and clarity with which the interaction with a computer program or a web site (web usability) is designed. Usability differs from user satisfaction and user experience because usability also considers usefulness. (†972)
valuation (s.v. valuation (finance)): The process of estimating what something is worth. Items that are usually valued are a financial asset or liability. Valuations are needed for many reasons such as investment analysis, capital budgeting, merger and acquisition transactions, financial reporting, taxable events to determine the proper tax liability, and in litigation. (†978)
vendor lock-in (s.v. vendor lock-in): In economics, vendor lock-in, also known as proprietary lock-in or customer lock-in, makes a customer dependent on a vendor for products and services, unable to use another vendor without substantial switching costs. (†980)
vulnerability (s.v. vulnerability and vulnerability (computi): Vulnerability refers to the inability to withstand the effects of a hostile environment. A window of vulnerability is a time frame within which defensive measures are reduced, compromised or lacking. In computer security, a vulnerability is a weakness which allows an attacker to reduce a system's information assurance. (†981)
web 2.0 (s.v. web 2.0): Web 2.0 describes World Wide Web sites that use technology beyond the static pages of earlier Web sites. ...Although Web 2.0 suggests a new version of the World Wide Web, it does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but rather to cumulative changes in the way Web pages are made and used.
A Web 2.0 site may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to Web sites where people are limited to the passive viewing of content.
(†970)
web 2.0 (s.v. web 2.0): Whether Web 2.0 is substantively different from prior Web technologies has been challenged by World Wide Web inventor Sir Tim Berners-Lee, who describes the term as jargon.[DeveloperWorks Interviews, 2006-07-28] His original vision of the Web was "a collaborative medium, a place where we [could] all meet and read and write".[Berners-Lee on the read/write web, BBC News, 2005-08-09] (†971)
